Greek Fire: How ancient napalm protected Byzantium for 800 years

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Greek Fire: How ancient napalm protected Byzantium for 800 years

Callinicus of Heliopolis fled from the Muslim conquerors of Syria. For the Emperor of Byzantium he created a terrible miracle weapon. For 800 years, its Greek fire burned anyone who tried to conquer the city on the Bosphorus.

The Roman Empire was based on the power of the legions. On their discipline in combat and their ability to perform complex maneuvers in combat. This is common knowledge. What is less known is that the Eastern Roman Empire also had a superweapon that allowed Byzantium to survive the fall of the western half for 1000 years. The many enemies that threatened the shrinking territory of Byzantium – today’s Istanbul – on all sides were held at bay by a kind of napalm of antiquity – the Greek fire.

The recipe for the deadly substance was the most closely guarded imperial secret, which was only passed on from emperor to emperor until the fall of the empire in 1453. With the fall of the empire, the exact composition was also lost. To this day it has not been possible to reconstruct it.

Unforeseen effect

Incendiary weapons were nothing special in war – burning darts and fire pots were used against fortifications or flaming bales rolled onto the enemy’s battle lines. To increase the effect, rags and sticks were soaked in fat or oil. Even fat pigs were set on fire during sieges. But the Greek fire had a completely different quality, the effect was similar to today’s napalm. Its infernal effect and the roar of the ejected flames reminded contemporaries of the apocalypse. It had nothing to do with normal warfare.

The fire originated in a new emergency situation of the empire. By the time of Constantine IV Pogantus (668-685), the previous attempt to restore the empire to its former glory had long since failed. The emperor faced a new challenge – the Arab warriors who, after the Prophet’s death, subdued the eastern territories of the empire. The new miracle weapon came at just the right time. Callinicus of Heliopolis fled from the conquerors from his native Syria, he developed the deadly recipe for the emperor. Although later legend claimed that an angel gave Constantine the Great the primordial recipe straight from the kingdom of heaven.

Not to delete

The material self-ignited on contact with air, and the sticky substance could not be extinguished with water. It would stick to everything it touched, wood and skin, and then burn itself in until the material it touched got so hot it ignited. It turned even the waves of the sea into a flaming inferno. Only hides or tarpaulins soaked in vinegar or stale urine offered any protection. This made it the perfect weapon for the Navy, when hit it reliably set the ships hit on fire.

The material was placed in pots that were thrown or thrown from catapults. It was sprayed on ships by a mysterious apparatus. This fire engine consisted of a long tube and a kind of oven, which initially built up heat – with a pumping movement, the incendiary agent was then thrown out of the tube in batches. The result was a jet of fire dozens of meters long, bending through the air.

Live on in “Game of Thrones”

The small fireships of the Byzantines turned into angry, fire-breathing dragons. Several times they completely destroyed superior enemy fleets. The effect was so powerful that it also inspired the series “Game of Thrones”. The glowing green Wildfire that burns an entire fleet at the Battle of Blackwater is the novel’s version of Greek Fire.

In addition, the Byzantines had portable tubes that were used like a flamethrower. One source writes: “Combustible sap is collected from the pine and some of these evergreen trees. This is rubbed with sulfur and placed in hoses and thrown up by men with heavy and sustained breaths. Then it falls like a fiery whirlwind on their faces of enemies.” At the same time, to exploit the panic in the enemy’s ranks, crow’s feet were thrown at them, their hooks so sharp that they pierced the soles of their sandals.

Defeated by the Arillery

Today it is believed that the Greek fire consisted of a mixture of petroleum, pitch, sulphur, pine or cedar resin, lime and bitumen, to which saltpeter was added. For the enemies, the devil’s stuff remained a mystery. Although they got their hands on the material and the equipment, they were never able to mix it themselves. Similar formulas were later used by Arabs and Crusaders, but they did not reach the effectiveness of the original. The Emperors of Byzantium used fire only in dire need to keep its secret. For 800 years it protected the walls of the city. Until a new superweapon appeared. When the city was conquered, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II used heavy siege cannons – their range far exceeded that of deadly fire.

Sources: STMU History Media, National Interest

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